REVIEW PAPER
Grid-forming inverters in converter-dominated power systems: control strategies, deployments, and barriers in the ENTSO-E context
1
Independant Researcher, Poland
Submission date: 2025-12-06
Final revision date: 2026-03-17
Acceptance date: 2026-03-18
Publication date: 2026-09-25
Polityka Energetyczna – Energy Policy Journal 2026;29(3):247-262
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
The ongoing transformation of electric power systems toward converter-dominated power systems poses major challenges for system stability, inertia provision, and voltage control. This review paper examines the role of grid-forming inverters in converter-dominated power systems, analyzing their control strategies, deployment experiences, and implementation barriers in the ENTSO-E context.
Three main control approaches – Droop-based control, Virtual Synchronous Machine (VSM), and Virtual Oscillator Control (VOC) – are analyzed in terms of operational principles, advantages and limitations. The paper synthesizes findings from recent literature, regulatory documents, and real-world implementations in the United Kingdom, Germany, and Australia. By identifying both the technical feasibility and regulatory challenges of grid-forming inverters adoption, the review contributes to the ongoing discussion on stability provision and market design for low-inertia systems.
This paper contributes to the literature by providing a systematic and policy-oriented review of grid-forming inverter control strategies and deployments, with emphasis on barriers and enablers for their adoption within the ENTSO-E framework. It integrates recent findings from both academic and industry sources (2017–2025) to bridge the gap between control theory and regulatory implementation.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The Author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
METADATA IN OTHER LANGUAGES:
Polish
Falowniki tworzące sieć w systemach elektroenergetycznych zdominowanych przez konwertery: strategie sterowania, wdrożenia i bariery w kontekście ENTSO-E
falownik tworzący sieć, regulacja spadku napięcia, wirtualna maszyna synchroniczna, sterowanie wirtualnym oscylatorem, ENTSO-E
Trwająca transformacja systemów elektroenergetycznych w kierunku systemów zdominowanych przez przetworniki stanowi poważne wyzwanie dla stabilności systemu, zapewnienia bezwładności oraz regulacji napięcia.
W niniejszym artykule przeglądowym zbadano rolę falowników kształtujących sieć w systemach elektroenergetycznych zdominowanych przez przetworniki, analizując strategie ich sterowania, doświadczenia związane z wdrażaniem oraz bariery wdrożeniowe w kontekście ENTSO-E.
Przeanalizowano trzy główne podejścia do sterowania – sterowanie oparte na charakterystyce opadania napięcia (Droop), wirtualną maszynę synchroniczną (VSM) oraz sterowanie wirtualnym oscylatorem (VOC) – pod kątem zasad działania, zalet i ograniczeń. W artykule zsyntetyzowano wyniki badań z najnowszej literatury, dokumentów regulacyjnych oraz rzeczywistych wdrożeń w Wielkiej Brytanii, Niemczech i Australii. Poprzez zidentyfikowanie zarówno technicznej wykonalności, jak i wyzwań regulacyjnych związanych z wdrożeniem falowników kształtujących sieć, niniejszy przegląd wnosi wkład do toczącej się dyskusji na temat zapewniania stabilności oraz projektowania rynku dla systemów o niskiej bezwładności.
Niniejszy artykuł wnosi wkład do literatury przedmiotu, przedstawiając systematyczny i zorientowany na politykę przegląd strategii sterowania falownikami kształtującymi sieć oraz ich wdrożeń, z naciskiem na bariery i czynniki sprzyjające ich wdrożeniu w ramach ENTSO-E. Artykuł integruje najnowsze wyniki badań pochodzące zarówno ze źródeł akademickich, jak i branżowych (2017–2025), aby wypełnić lukę między teorią sterowania a wdrożeniami regulacyjnymi.
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| eISSN: | 2720-569X |
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